Personal computer memory. Memory is designed to store programs and data that the processor directly works with. It consists of cells whose location is determined by a unique address. In addition to temporary data, which is determined by what the computer is currently doing, it must know and permanently remember some standard programs and data. Solving the problems of storing various types of information and reliable functioning of a personal computer has led to the use of several types of internal and external memory
Internal memory Internal memory. RAM is designed to store information and is implemented using a set of chips installed on the motherboard. Memory modules are plates with rows of contacts on which large integrated memory circuits are placed. Random access memory (RAM) Read-only memory (ROM) Cache memory
RAM The memory of a random access memory device stores temporary information that changes as the microprocessor performs various operations. This kind of memory provides access to any randomly selected memory cell at any time. This property is reflected in the English name of RAM (Random Access Memory). We must not forget that RAM is a volatile device, i.e. When you turn off the computer's power, all information in RAM is erased. RAM is characterized by high speed and relatively small volume. For modern computers, the memory capacity range is MB.
ROM The ROM memory stores information recorded at the manufacturer; it must remain unchanged for a long time. Persistent information includes basic system programs that automatically start when you turn on the computer. The computer can read or execute programs from permanent memory, but it cannot change them or add new ones. ROM memory is intended only for reading information. This property of persistent memory explains the often used English name ROM (Read Only Memory). ROM memory is also implemented in the form of integrated circuits. The difference is that these chips are non-volatile. Turning off the power does not result in data loss. There are two main types of ROM memory chips, once programmable (once written, the contents of the memory cannot be changed) and repeatedly programmable.
Cache memory To increase computer performance and coordinate the operation of devices with different speeds, a modern computer uses another type of memory - cache memory (from the English cache - hiding place, warehouse). Cache memory is an intermediate storage device or buffer. It is used when exchanging data between the microprocessor and RAM, between RAM and an external storage device. The use of cache memory reduces the number of read-write accesses to the hard disk, since it stores data, repeated access to which does not require the processor to repeat the reading process or other information processing. There are two types of cache memory: internal (from 8 to 64 KB), located inside the processor, and external (from 256 KB to 1 MB), which is installed on the motherboard. microprocessor RAM RAM External drives
External memory External memory is designed for long-term storage of programs and data. External memory devices (drives) are non-volatile; turning off the power does not lead to data loss. They can be built into the system unit or made in the form of independent units connected to the system unit through its ports. An important characteristic of external memory is its volume. The amount of external memory can be increased by adding new drives. No less important characteristics of external memory are the access time to information and the speed of information exchange. These parameters depend on the device for reading information and the organization of the type of access to it.
NGMD Flexible magnetic disks, or floppy disks, are the most common storage media. The most popular floppy disks are 3.5" (inch), (3-inch). Disks are called flexible because the plastic disk located inside the protective sleeve actually bends. That is why the protective sleeve is made of hard plastic. The disk is covered on top with a special magnetic layer that provides data storage. Information is recorded on both sides of the disk along tracks that are concentric circles. Each track is divided into sectors. The density of data recording depends on the density of the tracks on the surface, i.e. the number of tracks on the surface of the disk, and also on the density of recording information along the track. There are DD, HD and ED standards for 3.5 floppy disks, the volume of recorded information is from 720 KB to 2.88 MB. The most common are 3.5 HD floppy disks. As a storage medium, floppy disks have almost become obsolete, small volume, low read/write speed, and unreliability make their use unprofitable.
HDD Hard magnetic disks, or “hard drives,” are an essential component of a personal computer. There are different versions of the origin of the name "Winchester". According to one of them, the first hard drives were released at an IBM branch in the small town of Winchester. A hard drive is several aluminum plates coated with a magnetic layer, which, together with the reading and writing mechanism, are enclosed in a hermetically sealed case inside the system unit. Hard drives have advantages over floppy drives in two main parameters: the volume of hard drives is significantly higher and ranges from several hundred megabytes to hundreds of gigabytes; the speed of information exchange is 10 times greater. To access the hard drive, the name specified by the Latin letter C: is used. If a second hard drive is installed, it is assigned the following letter of the Latin alphabet D:. The computer provides the ability, using a special system program, to conditionally split one disk into several. Such disks, which do not exist as a separate physical device, but represent only part of one physical disk, are called logical disks.
CD-ROM CD-ROM drives. Compact discs, which were used for audio equipment, were modified for use in PCs and have now become an integral part of modern computers. It is an excellent storage medium, more compact, convenient and cheaper than a hard drive. It is executed as an internal device, and has a drive size of 5.25. Typically controlled via an IDE, SCSI interface or sound card. The disc is made of polycarbonate, which is coated on one side with a reflective layer (made of aluminum or gold). Recording is carried out using a laser beam that burns alternating depressions in the surface of the metal layer. The main characteristic is the data transfer speed. The reading unit is the reading speed from a magnetic tape. The reading speed of subsequent devices is a multiple of this and varies from 150 Kb/sec. Up to 6-7 Mb/sec. The reading speed of subsequent devices is a multiple of this and varies from 150 Kb/sec. Up to 6-7 Mb/sec. The quality of reading is characterized by the error rate and is an estimate of the probability of distortion of an information bit when it is read. This parameter reflects the device's ability to correct read/write errors. Average access time is the time it takes for the drive to find the necessary data on the media. Varies from 400 to 80 ms.
DVD-ROM DVD (Digital Video Disk) - discs that will replace CD-ROM, were originally developed for home video. They differ in that they can store a volume of data many times greater than the capabilities of CDs (from 4.7 to 17 GB). The level of sound and image quality stored on DVD is close to studio quality. DVD drives use a narrower laser beam than CD-ROMs, so the thickness of the disc's protective layer was reduced by half, which led to the appearance of double-layer discs.
Flash memory Flash memory, introduced in the late 1980s (Intel), is a member of a class of electrically erasable programmable read-only memory devices. However, it erases an entire area of cells at once: a block or the entire chip. This ensures faster recording of information or, as this procedure is otherwise called, memory programming. To simplify this procedure, special blocks are included in the chip that make the recording “transparent” (similar to recording in a regular memory) for the hardware and software environment.
Various types of flash memory Portable DVD-ROM drive; can be used both when connected to a computer as a DVD-ROM, and as a DVD player when connected to a TV. DISK STENO is nothing more than a stand-alone external USB 2.0 CDRW drive combined with a 6-format card reader. Can read information from six main types of flash cards, can also be used as an external write drive. ZIP Pro drive. It can perform simple tasks that boil down to transferring back and forth small amounts of work data and large amounts of entertainment data, such as music, movies and games.
Nixvue Digital Album Flash Cards Once a memory card (used, for example, in a digital camera) is full, data from that card can be copied to a digital album; It is possible to print photos without a computer. OLYMPUS CAMEDIA M- XD512P xD-Picture Card Memory card designed for long-term (tens of years) data storage in the absence of a power source. Used in digital cameras and other devices. USB Flash Drive Resource - up to rewrite cycles. The guaranteed data storage period is up to 10 years. SmartMedia Flash Card A memory card designed for long-term data storage. Used in digital cameras and other devices Compact Flash Card Memory card designed for long-term (tens of years) storage of data in the absence of a source. Used in digital cameras, pocket computers and other devices SD Memory Card Memory card; used in MP3 players, digital cameras, PDAs, smartphones and other devices.
List of used literature dota.ru O. Kolesnichenko, I. Shishigin “RS Hardware” 3rd edition. SPb, BHV – St. Petersburg, PC Magazine PC Magazine
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External computer memory External computer memory is designed for long-term storage of large amounts of information. The computer's external memory is non-volatile. External memory can be on magnetic and optical disks and magnetic tapes.
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External computer memory Storage media are devices that allow you to store information for a long time. Information storage devices (drives) are devices that provide recording of information onto a medium, as well as reading it into RAM.
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External computer memory The main types of modern storage media and the corresponding drives Flash memory Magnetic optical media Storage media HDD (floppy disks, floppy disks) HDD LMD (Hard Disk) HDD hard drive ML NML (streamers) CD-ROM CD-ROM CD-R CD-RW CD-RW CD-RW DVD DVD
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External computer memory The recording, storage and reading of information on external media is based on 2 principles: magnetic optical
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External computer memory Magnetic principle magnetized section – 1 non-magnetized section – 0
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External computer memory Magnetic media GMD - flexible magnetic disks LMD - hard magnetic disks ML - magnetic tapes
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External computer memory GMD - floppy magnetic disks Floppy disks (floppy disks) allow you to transfer information from one computer to another, store information that is not constantly used on the PC: archives and copies. Floppy disk size is 3.5 inches Memory capacity is 1.44 MB The process of writing and reading information is slow (≈ 50 Kb/s or 360 rpm)
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External computer memory GMD - floppy magnetic disks write protection window clamping device read/write hole sliding cover plastic housing
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External computer memory GMD - floppy magnetic disks advantages of floppy disks: Cheap Lightweight Widespread Random access disadvantages of floppy disks: The slowest media Small memory capacity
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External computer memory LMD - hard magnetic disks A hard magnetic disk is several thin metal (aluminum alloy) disks located under each other, rotating very quickly on one axis, and enclosed in a metal case. Located inside the system unit. Memory capacity is measured in GB (80,150, etc.) Information access speed 133 MB/s (7200 rpm)
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External computer memory LMD - hard magnetic disks advantages of hard disks: Located in a sealed closed case Reliably protected from dust and other contaminants Reading and writing speed from the hard disk is high Random access
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External computer memory LMD - hard magnetic disks Hard disks are usually mounted in the same case with a disk drive, so the entire device is called a hard drive: drive + media
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External computer memory ML – magnetic tapes Cassette with a roll of magnetic tape in a plastic casing. Its main advantage is its relative low cost and large memory capacity. The main disadvantage is that it takes longer to access information than with other types of memory.
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External computer memory Magnetic disks – direct (random) access devices Magnetic tapes – sequential access devices
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External computer memory Optical principle, optical media CD disks are a device for storing information that is encoded by alternating light-reflecting and non-reflecting areas on the spiral track of the disk. Laser disk size is 4.72” Memory capacity ≈ 650 MB Reading and writing speed from a laser disk is average
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External computer memory Optical principle, optical media CD-ROM is a read-only optical storage medium.
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External computer memory Optical principle, CD-R (CD-Recordable) optical media allows you to burn your own CDs.
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External computer memory Optical principle, CD-RW optical media allows you to write and rewrite CD-RW discs, write CD-R discs, read CD-ROM discs. They are universal.
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Computer memory devices GBOU secondary school No. 1256 Taubaeva L.T.
Memory is used to store data and programs for processing them. Historically, computer memory is divided into internal and external. A computer's internal memory consists of read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), and random access memory (cache).
Computer memory Computer memory Internal Long-term (external) RAM (RAM) ROM (BIOS) Cache (CPU) Hard drive (hard drive) Laser (optical) disks Flash cards
Read-only memory (ROM) Read-only memory is designed to read information stored in it. ROM contains programs that are written there at the factory. They automatically start when you turn on the computer. These programs are designed to initially boot the operating system. After turning off the computer's power, the information in ROM is saved - it is a non-volatile device.
Random Access Memory (RAM) All information necessary for the computer to operate is stored in RAM. The processor can instantly access information located in RAM, which is why it is called “fast” (RAM). After turning off the power source, all information contained in the RAM is destroyed - RAM is volatile.
Random access memory (RAM) RAM is characterized by two parameters: volume and speed. The capabilities of a computer largely depend on the amount of RAM: the larger the amount of memory, the greater the ability of the computer to work with information. A computer's RAM consists of a large number of cells, each of which can store a certain amount of information, for example, one text character. The most common personal computers have RAM capacity of 128-256 MB.
RAM The second important characteristic of RAM modules is their speed, that is, the period of time during which the operation of writing or reading information from memory cells occurs. Modern memory modules provide information access speeds of over 10 nanoseconds (10 -9 s).
Cache memory To speed up calculations, information from the most frequently used areas of RAM is placed in ultra-fast memory chips - cache memory. Lack of cache memory can reduce overall computer performance by 20-30%. Currently, cache memory with a capacity of 64-512 KB is widely used.
External (long-term) memory External memory is designed for long-term storage of programs and data not currently in use. External memory, unlike RAM, is non-volatile. To work with external memory, you must have: 1) a storage device, or disk drive, a device that provides recording/reading of information; 2) media - information storage device.
Main characteristics of drives and media: information capacity; speed of information exchange; reliability of information storage; price.
Magnetic disks Magnetic disks are round plastic or metal plates that have a magnetic coating. Data is stored on such disks in the form of magnetized or non-magnetized areas. Information on magnetic media can be recorded multiple times.
Floppy disk A floppy disk is a thin and flexible plastic disk coated on both sides with a special substance and placed in a hard plastic envelope. The user places such discs in and out of the drive himself. Most floppy disks in use today are 3.5 inches in size. The information capacity of the floppy disk is 1.44 MB. It could, for example, contain a book of about 600 pages or several high-quality graphic images.
Hard drives (hard drives) Hard drives (hard drives) are made of glass or metal. Hard drives are most often permanently located inside the computer. They perform exactly the same functions as floppy disks; however, hard drives are capable of storing significantly more information, spin faster and, unlike floppy drives, cannot be lost, they are protected from dirt, dust, moisture, temperature and other external influences. The most popular disks today are those with a capacity of 20-300 GB.
Laser discs CD-ROMs or laser discs are now widely used. Information is written and read in laser disk drives using light. Therefore, laser discs are also called optical discs. Optical disc Device for reading and writing optical discs
The structure of a laser disc The structure of a laser disc resembles a layer cake. The first layer - the main one - is made of plastic, the second - reflective - is made of metal, the third - protective - is made of transparent varnish. The main layer contains useful information encoded in microscopic depressions called pits applied to it. Information on a laser disc is recorded on one spiral-shaped track (like on a gramophone record), containing alternating sections with different reflectivity. A laser beam falls on the surface of a rotating disk, the intensity of the reflected beam depends on the reflectivity of the track section and is interpreted as 0 or 1. CD-ROM is convenient for storing immutable information up to 650 MB
Recording CDs At first, the main disadvantage of the CD was the inability to record on it at home. This drawback was eliminated with the advent of first write-once CD-R discs, and then CD-RW rewritable discs.
Recording CDs The plastic base for CD-Rs does not carry useful information. On top is a film of an alloy of rare earth metals that can reversibly change their state depending on the temperature of heating by a laser beam.
DVD Recently, DVD digital versatile discs with a capacity of up to 7 GB have appeared on the market. In appearance and internal structure, they are very similar to CDs: similar technologies are used to apply pits to the plastic base; recording the signal reflected from the metal coating and interpreting it in the form of zeros and ones. The fundamental difference is the increase in recording density through the use of a semiconductor laser with a shorter wavelength.
Flash devices Recently, flash cards and other flash devices have become widespread. These devices for long-term storage of information are very mobile and convenient. The main disadvantages of a USB flash drive include a limited write/erase cycle, but the data stored in the device can be read an infinite number of times. The rewrite cycle is currently limited from 10,000 to 100,000 times. Sensitive to radiation and electrostatic discharge (usually observed in everyday life, most often in winter).
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Personal computer memory.
Memory is designed to store programs and data that the processor directly works with. It consists of cells whose location is determined by a unique address. In addition to temporary data, which is determined by what the computer is currently doing, it must know and permanently remember some standard programs and data. Solving the problems of storing various types of information and reliable functioning of a personal computer has led to the use of several types of internal and external memory
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Classification of computer memory
Internal memory External memory
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Inner memory.
RAM is designed to store information and is implemented using a set of chips installed on the motherboard. Memory modules are plates with rows of contacts on which large integrated memory circuits are placed. Random access memory (RAM) Read-only memory (ROM) Cache memory
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RAM
The memory of the random access memory device stores temporary information that changes as the microprocessor performs various operations. This kind of memory provides access to any randomly selected memory cell at any time. This property is reflected in the English name of RAM (Random Access Memory). We must not forget that RAM is a volatile device, i.e. When you turn off the computer's power, all information in RAM is erased. RAM is characterized by high speed and relatively small volume. For modern computers, the memory capacity range is 16 - 512 MB.
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ROM
The ROM memory stores information recorded at the manufacturer; it must remain unchanged for a long time. Persistent information includes basic system programs that automatically start when you turn on the computer. The computer can read or execute programs from permanent memory, but it cannot change them or add new ones. ROM memory is intended only for reading information. This property of persistent memory explains the often used English name ROM (Read Only Memory). ROM memory is also implemented in the form of integrated circuits. The difference is that these chips are non-volatile. Turning off the power does not result in data loss. There are two main types of ROM memory chips, once programmable (once written, the contents of the memory cannot be changed) and repeatedly programmable.
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Cache memory
To increase computer performance and coordinate the operation of devices with different speeds, a modern computer uses another type of memory - cache memory (from the English cache - hiding place, warehouse). Cache memory is an intermediate storage device or buffer. It is used when exchanging data between the microprocessor and RAM, between RAM and an external storage device. The use of cache memory reduces the number of read-write accesses to the hard disk, since it stores data, repeated access to which does not require the processor to repeat the reading process or other information processing. There are two types of cache memory: internal (from 8 to 64 KB), located inside the processor, and external (from 256 KB to 1 MB), which is installed on the motherboard. microprocessor RAM RAM External drives
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External memory
External memory is designed for long-term storage of programs and data. External memory devices (drives) are non-volatile; turning off the power does not lead to data loss. They can be built into the system unit or made in the form of independent units connected to the system unit through its ports. An important characteristic of external memory is its volume. The amount of external memory can be increased by adding new drives. No less important characteristics of external memory are the access time to information and the speed of information exchange. These parameters depend on the device for reading information and the organization of the type of access to it.
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NGMD
Floppy disks, or floppy disks, are the most common storage media. The most popular floppy disks are 3.5" (inch), (3-inch). Disks are called flexible because the plastic disk located inside the protective sleeve actually bends. That is why the protective sleeve is made of hard plastic. The disk is covered on top with a special magnetic layer that provides data storage. Information is recorded on both sides of the disk along tracks that are concentric circles. Each track is divided into sectors. The density of data recording depends on the density of the tracks on the surface, i.e. the number of tracks on the surface of the disk, and also on the density of information recording along the track. There are DD, HD and ED standards for 3.5" floppy disks, the volume of recorded information is from 720 KB to 2.88 MB. The most common are 3.5" HD floppy disks. As a storage medium, floppy disks are almost obsolete themselves, small volume, low read/write speed, and unreliability make their use unprofitable.
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HDD
Hard magnetic disks, or “hard drives,” are an essential component of a personal computer. There are different versions of the origin of the name "Winchester". According to one of them, the first hard drives were released at an IBM branch in the small town of Winchester. A hard drive is several aluminum plates coated with a magnetic layer, which, together with the reading and writing mechanism, are enclosed in a hermetically sealed case inside the system unit. Hard drives have advantages over floppy drives in two main parameters: the volume of hard drives is significantly higher and ranges from several hundred megabytes to hundreds of gigabytes; the speed of information exchange is 10 times greater. To access the hard drive, the name specified by the Latin letter C: is used. If a second hard drive is installed, it is assigned the following letter of the Latin alphabet D:. The computer provides the ability, using a special system program, to conditionally split one disk into several. Such disks, which do not exist as a separate physical device, but represent only part of one physical disk, are called logical disks.
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CD-ROM
CD-ROM drives. Compact discs, which were used for audio equipment, were modified for use in PCs and have now become an integral part of modern computers. It is an excellent storage medium, more compact, convenient and cheaper than a hard drive. It is designed as an internal device and has a 5.25" drive size. Typically controlled via an IDE, SCSI interface or sound card. The disc is made of polycarbonate, which is coated on one side with a reflective layer (made of aluminum or gold). Recording is carried out using a laser beam that burns alternating depressions in the surface of the metal layer. The main characteristic is the data transfer speed. The reading unit is the reading speed from a magnetic tape. The reading speed of subsequent devices is a multiple of this and varies from 150 Kb/sec. Up to 6-7 Mb/sec. The reading speed of subsequent devices is a multiple of this and varies from 150 Kb/sec. Up to 6-7 Mb/sec. The quality of reading is characterized by the error rate and is an estimate of the probability of distortion of an information bit when it is read. This parameter reflects the device's ability to correct read/write errors. Average access time is the time it takes for the drive to find the necessary data on the media. Varies from 400 to 80 ms.
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The relevance of the project is due to the fact that the modern computer market is so diverse that it is quite difficult to determine the PC configuration with the required characteristics. The goal of the project is to study the architecture of modern personal computers. Understand the purpose of basic memory devices.
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COMPUTER MEMORY How is computer memory organized? It can be thought of as a long page of separate lines. Each such line is called a memory cell BIT 0 or 1 Binary encoding Bytes Bits 001011000 101001101.... The memory cell, in turn, is divided into bits. The contents of any bit can be 0 or 1.
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So, a certain set of zeros and ones is written into any memory cell - a machine word. All memory cells are numbered. The cell number is called its address
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INTERNAL MEMORY Internal memory is used to store information. Consists of individual bits combined into groups of 8 bits (bytes). Each byte has its own number (address). Internal memory includes: random access memory (RAM) read-only memory (ROM)
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So, the internal memory is bit-based. Note that the organization of external memory is not the same. The information structure of the external memory is file-based. The smallest named unit in external memory is a file. Computers whose memory has a linear organization, and whose processor consists of three parts we have considered, are called Neumann.
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RAM Random access memory is a fast storage device of not very large capacity, which is directly connected to the processor and designed to write, read and store executable programs and data that are processed by these programs.
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ROM ROM is read-only memory. Information is usually entered into it at the factory and is stored permanently. The ROM contains a computer self-test program
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BIOS Immediately after turning on the computer, the electronic “clock” of the main bus begins to “tick”. Their impulses push the sleepy processor away, and it can start working. But the processor needs commands to operate. The design of the ROM chip differs from RAM chips, but logically these are the same cells in which some numbers are written, except that they are not erased when the power is turned off. Each cell has its own address.
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CMOS There is another chip on the motherboard - CMOS memory. It stores the settings necessary for the operation of BIOS programs. In particular, the current date and time, parameters of hard drives and some other devices are stored here. This memory can be neither operational nor permanent. It is made non-volatile and is constantly powered by a small rechargeable battery, also located on the motherboard. The charge of this battery is enough to ensure that the computer does not lose settings, even if it is not turned on for several years.
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CACH MEMORY Cache memory is a high-speed random access memory used by the computer processor to temporarily store information. It improves performance by keeping the most frequently used data and commands "closer" to the processor, where they can be retrieved faster. Cache memory directly affects the speed of calculations and helps the processor work with a more even load.
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The cache memory is located “between” the microprocessor and the RAM, and when the microprocessor accesses the memory, it first searches for the required data in the cache memory. Since access time to cache memory is several times less than to conventional memory, and in most cases the data needed by the microprocessor is contained in cache memory, the average memory access time is reduced.
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VIDEO MEMORY A graphics card (also known as a graphics card, video card, video adapter) is a device that converts an image located in the computer's memory into a video signal for the monitor. Usually a video card is an expansion card and is inserted into a special slot for video cards on the motherboard, but it can also be built-in. Modern video cards are not limited to simple image output; they have a built-in microprocessor that can perform additional processing, relieving the computer's central processor from these tasks.
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THE GRAPHICS BOARD CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING PARTS: Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) - deals with calculations of the output image, relieving the central processor of this responsibility, and makes calculations for processing 3D graphics commands. It is the basis of the graphics card; the performance and capabilities of the entire device depend on it.
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Video controller - responsible for generating images in video memory, giving RAMDAC commands to generate scan signals for the monitor and processing requests from the central processor. In addition, there is usually an external data bus controller, an internal data bus controller, and a video memory controller. The width of the internal bus and the video memory bus are usually wider.
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Digital-to-analog converter DAC (RAMDAC) - serves to convert the image generated by the video controller into color intensity levels supplied to the analog monitor. The possible color range of the image is determined only by the RAMDAC parameters. Most often, RAMDAC has four main blocks - three digital-to-analog converters, one for each color channel (red, blue, green, RGB), and SRAM for storing correction gamma data.
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Video ROM (Video ROM) is a permanent storage device in which video BIOS, screen fonts, service tables, etc. are written. ROM is not used directly by the video controller - only the central processor accesses it. The video BIOS stored in ROM ensures initialization and operation of the video card before loading the main operating system, and also contains system data that can be read and interpreted by the video driver during operation